Journal articles: 'Aptitude à l'apprentissage – Europe' – Grafiati (2024)

Abstract:

On peut trouver les origines de l'idée de représentation des régions au sein des institutions européennes dans la pensée politique « corporatiste » de la démocratie chrétienne ainsi que dans les courants régionalistes des années cinquante. Ce dont il faut rendre compte, ce n'est pas de la mise en oeuvre de cette conception mais du caractère tardif de sa concrétisation. C'est la crise économique des pays capitalistes au cours des années soixante-dix qui entraîna la nécessaire réforme de l'État et la relance de la construction européenne, en particulier la refonte de la politique régionale communautaire. Ces transformations ont constitué un facteur de mobilisation des régions et d'émergence du projet d’« Europe des régions » initié par les Länder allemands ; elles ont abouti à la création du Comité des régions par le traité de Maastricht. Si, du point de vue constitutionnel, le Comité est très faible, du point de vue politique, en tant que facteur de mobilisation des régions et instance de communication, il est toutefois doté d'un fort potentiel et pourrait connaître une évolution qui l'apparente à celle du Parlement européen. Le Comité ne s'est pas vraiment encore imposé sur le plan international ; il fait plutôt figure de laboratoire d'idées, au sein duquel les régions et les villes peuvent faire l'apprentissage de l'action au niveau international.

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English In recent years there has been an increased interest in comparative social work in the UK and EU. The process of learning and teaching in this area needs to be supported by academic debate. Utilizing hermeneutics and reflective learning, we advance a theory of learning through comparison. French Un intérêt croissant pour la comparaison entre divers milieux de travail social s'est développé au cours des dernières années au Royaume Uni et en Europe. Les processus d'apprentissage et d'enseignement dans ce domaine ont besoin d'un support émanant de débats académiques. Utilisant l'herméneutique et l'apprentissage réflexif, nous avançons une théorie d'apprentissage par comparaison. Spanish Recientemente, en el Reino Unido y en los Estados Unidos, ha crecido el interés en trabajo social comparativo. El proceso de aprender y enseñar en esta Ärea debe ser apoyado en debate académico. Usando hermenéutica y aprendizaje reflexivo, los autores avanzan una teoría de aprendizaje a través de la comparación.

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Fatigue load models for road bridges given in the Eurocode EN1991-2 have been calibrated considering real traffic measurements that became available around 1990. Since then, traffic composition has evolved considerably, also considering the issuing of the 96/53/EC Directive, which legitimated member states, on an equal and not discriminatory basis, to allow the circulation of Long and Heavy Vehicles (LHVs). Thus, the appropriateness of fatigue load models to cover also the effects of these vehicles, which are longer, heavier and potentially more damaging than common Heavy Goods Vehicles (HGVs), became an issue. The aim of the study is to assess how the evolution of European traffic influences the fatigue assessment of bridges. To capture the essence of the problem, three different real traffic measurements are compared in terms of fatigue damage: the Auxerre (FR) traffic, adopted to define fatigue load models in EN1991-2; the Moerdijk (NL) traffic, characterized by a high percentage of LHVs; and the Igualada (ES) traffic. To assess the current relevance of fatigue load models LM2 and LM4 of EN1991-2, the aptitude of these models to adequately reproduce the effects caused by LHVs is discussed in detail. The results demonstrate that the Auxerre traffic is still the most onerous; that the Moerdijk traffic is generally more severe than the Igualada traffic, and that the fatigue load models of Eurocode do not require major updates. The study is further supplemented by investigating the suitability of the formulae provided in the Eurocodes for the damage equivalence factors λ2 and λ3 to express the influence of the total lorry volume on the fatigue damage. In that latter case, the conclusion is that the formulae proposed in the Eurocodes, based on the assumption of a linear fatigue strength S–N curve with constant conventional slope m, could lead to erroneous, even unsafe, estimates of the fatigue life, especially when details are characterized by constant amplitude fatigue limit ΔσD, thus calling for further improvements of the formulae themselves.

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Sociologists, ethnologists, philosophers among others have tried to identify the norms or rules that govern scientific research; however, so far, they have not been widely accepted by scientists. This team followed a different path to identify the rules that govern scientific work by asking researchers if, in their opinion, there are rules in scientific research, and, if so, what they are. An opinion poll was conducted among 270 scientists who received academic training at universities in Mexico, Europe, and the United States, and who work at three universities in Mexico. The instrument is based on a social psychology theory that divides memories into spontaneous and assisted, and a dichotomous probability distribution was used to identify variations. Between eight and nine out of ten researchers from physical, biological, and social sciences recognized that there are four rules for research: to study reality as it is, have a critical attitude, have a methodological aptitude, and express willingness to openly publish results. Despite the heterogeneity of the disciplines researchers practice and the variety of their academic training, there is a consensus among scientists about the validity of such rules to conduct scientific research, although most of the time they do not mention them spontaneously.

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PurposeEntrepreneurial knowledge spurs innovation and, in turn, generates a competitive advantage. This paper aims to explore if entrepreneurial knowledge combined with the attitude to innovate can overcome the key “imperfections” of the innovation process generated by dynamic, current technological progress in the knowledge-intensive sector. The “imperfections” identified in risk management, asymmetric information in the knowledge management process and hold-up problems can all disrupt collaborative partnerships and limit opportunities for innovation.Design/methodology/approachA theory-building approach is applied which offers a case study analysis of two small- to medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). These two SMEs operate in Europe but in two different territories: the UK and Italy. The study explores three key imperfections, risk management, asymmetric information in the knowledge management process and hold-up problems, which occur in the innovation process.FindingsThe entrepreneurs face these imperfections by adopting an open innovation model. Notwithstanding, both entrepreneurs had to deal with all “imperfections”, and their skills, attributes, attitude and aptitude allowed them to grow their business and continually develop new products. Therefore, the imperfections do not limit the innovative capacity of an entrepreneur but rather enhance their challengeable attitude. In this regard, the case studies induce a further analysis on entrepreneurial knowledge intertwined with entrepreneurial risk management and networking skills.Research limitations/implicationsThe empirical significance of the two cases does not allow theorisation. However, this research offers interesting results which can be strengthened by a comparative case study with other countries or deeper investigation by applying a quantitative approach.Originality/valueBy leveraging entrepreneurial knowledge, the imperfections noted in the innovation process can be overcome. Entrepreneurial knowledge is recognised as the main asset of an enterprise if it is combined with external talent or human resources. Entrepreneurs aim to develop innovative approaches and ideas through establishing both formal and informal collaborative partnership relationships which are used thanks to the entrepreneurs’ networking skills, knowledge and abilities.

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Résumé « Toute personne a droit à un niveau de vie suffisant pour assurer sa santé, son bien-être et ceux de sa famille, notamment pour l’alimentation, le logement, les soins médicaux ainsi que pour les services sociaux nécessaires […] ». Ainsi la Déclaration universelle des droits de l’homme dont nous venons de fêter le 50e anniversaire l’an dernier a été le premier document international à mentionner dès 1948 le droit au logement dans son article 25.1. Le logement joue un rôle fondamental pour la survie de l’homme et son aptitude au travail, de même que pour la sécurité de la société et sa cohésion. De plus, l’accès au logement est souvent la pierre angulaire de l’accès aux autres droits sociaux comme le droit à l’éducation, à la santé ou le droit aux services de base comme l’eau ou l’électricité. Cependant, en dépit de ce rôle stratégique du logement, beaucoup de nos concitoyens n’ont pas accès à cette ressource. Mentionnons que plus de 800 000 ménages au Canada dont 275 000 au Québec allouent plus de la moitié de leur revenu au logement, ce qui les oblige à couper dans les dépenses essentielles comme l’alimentation, les vêtements, les médicaments. Des populations marginalisées comme les personnes classées malades mentales, toxicomanes, déficientes intellectuelles y consacrent jusqu’à 45 % de leurs revenus quand ils veulent sortir du cadre de l’hébergement traditionnel. En Amérique du Nord comme en Europe, dans les pays émergents comme dans les pays du tiers-monde, le droit à un toit a toujours fait l’objet d’un combat intense de tous les jours. Le sujet est d’autant plus d’actualité que les partis politiques se positionnent et que des jeunes squatteurs occupent des terrains et des immeubles désaffectés. Au Québec, surtout sur le territoire métropolitain, le Front d’action populaire en réaménagement urbain (FRAPRU) a été le fer de lance de ce combat. Nous avons eu le plaisir d’interviewer son représentant, M. François Saillant.

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A la question «Qui de l’oeuf ou de la poule est né le premier ?» Silésius répondait «l’oeuf est dans la poule et la poule dans l’oeuf» soulignant sa dualité, le passage du deux en un. Dans l’imagerie populaire, l’oeuf reflète le tout et son contraire, fragilité, protection, épargne, abondance (être «plein comme un oeuf»), richesse («avoir pondu ses oeufs»), éternité (le Phénix est né de l’oeuf) mais aussi mort et destruction («casser ses oeufs» se dit d’une fausse couche). Dans la mythologie de nombreuses civilisations, l’oeuf est le symbole de la naissance du monde (Apollon, le dieu grec de la lumière est né de l’oeuf). L’oeuf décoré apparu 3000 ans avant J.-C. en Ukraine fête, au printemps, le retour de la fécondité de la nature ; l’oeuf de Pâques la résurrection du Christ. L’oeuf est un tout à condition d’en sortir ! Fragile cependant car selon La Fontaine briser l’oeuf de la poule aux oeufs d’or (par curiosité) rompt l’effet magique (Auer et Streff 1999). Pour l’Homme, l’oeuf séduit pour sa valeur nutritionnelle, sa diversité d’utilisation en cuisine et son prix modique. Il en existe une grande diversité, de l’oeuf de Colibri (0,5 g) à l’oeuf de l’Aepyornis (8 litres soit l’équivalent de 150 oeufs), un oiseau de Madagascar (500 kg) disparu au 18ème siècle. Mais l’Homme ne consomme que l’oeuf de caille, de poule ou de cane. L’ère moderne a considérablement intensifié la production de ces deux dernières espèces car les poules saisonnées, qui étaient élevées avec soin par la fermière, ont plus que doublé leur production en 60 ans (de 120 oeufs par an dans les années 50 à plus de 300 aujourd’hui). Cette révolution technique résulte des efforts conjugués de la sélection génétique, d’une alimentation raisonnée répondant aux besoins nutritionnels, d’une évolution du système de production (apparition des cages) et d’une meilleure connaissance de la pathologie aviaire. Qu’en est-il du contrôle de la qualité nutritionnelle, organoleptique, technologique et hygiénique de l’oeuf ? L’oeuf est la plus large cellule reproductrice en biologie animale. Il assure dans un milieu externe le développement et la protection d’un embryon dans une enceinte fermée matérialisée par la coquille. Aussi, une de ses particularités est la diversité de ses constituants, de leur parfait équilibre nutritionnel et leur forte digestibilité, qui assure la croissance d’un être vivant. Ces caractéristiques sont à l’origine de la qualité nutritionnelle exceptionnelle de l’oeuf pour l’Homme. Une autre particularité est la présence d’une protection physique, la coquille mais, aussi d’un système complexe de défenses chimiques. Aussi, ce produit est-il remarquable de par son aptitude à engendrer la vie et pour l’oeuf de table à se conserver. Outre les éléments nutritifs, on y trouve de multiples molécules participant au développement et à la protection de l’embryon (molécules antibactériennes, antivirales, antioxydantes). Certaines d’entre elles, comme par exemple le lysozyme de blanc d’oeuf, sont partiellement valorisées par différents secteurs industriels (agroalimentaire, cosmétique, santé animale/humaine). La révélation récente d’un grand nombre de nouveaux constituants de l’oeuf, suite au séquençage génomique de la poule et au développement de la biologie intégrative, a conforté l’existence d‘activités antimicrobiennes, anti-adhésives, immuno-modulatrices, hypertensives, anticancéreuses, antiinflammatoires ou cryoprotectrices, prometteuses en médecine humaine et devrait à terme enrichir le potentiel d’utilisation de ce produit en agroalimentaire et en santé. L’objet de ce numéro spécial d’INRA Productions Animales est de rassembler les principales informations qui ont contribué au développement économique récent de ce produit, de rappeler les efforts en génétique, élevage et nutrition qui ont assuré des progrès quantitatifs et qualitatifs remarquables de la production et de la qualité des oeufs au cours des trente dernières années. Les poules élevées à l’origine par la femme pour un usage domestique se comptent aujourd’hui par milliers dans les élevages. Quelle sera la durabilité de ce système d’élevage dans un contexte socio-économique européen remettant en cause en 2012 le système éprouvé de production conventionnel d’oeufs en cage pour des cages aménagées ou des systèmes alternatifs avec ou sans parcours ? Notre objectif est d’analyser les facteurs qui contribueront à son maintien, notamment le contrôle de la qualité de l’oeuf. Il est aussi de décrire l’évolution spectaculaire des connaissances sur ce produit liée au développement des techniques à haut débit et des outils d’analyse des séquences moléculaires. Il permettra enfin d’actualiser les atouts de ce produit. Ce numéro est complémentaire d’un ouvrage plus exhaustif sur la production et la qualité de l’oeuf (Nau et al 2010). Le premier article de P. Magdelaine souligne la croissance considérable en 20 ans de la production d’oeufs dans les pays d’Asie et d’Amérique du Sud (× 4 pour la Chine, × 2 en Inde et au Mexique). En revanche, les pays très développés notamment européens à forte consommation (> 150 oeufs/hab) ont stabilisé leur production malgré une évolution importante de la part des ovoproduits mais aussi de leurs systèmes de production. La consommation des protéines animales entre pays est tout aussi hétérogène puisque le ratio protéines de l’oeuf / protéines du lait varie de 0,4 au USA, à 0,9 en France et 2,7 en Chine ! Le doublement de la production mondiale d’oeufs en 20 ans n’a été possible que grâce à des progrès techniques considérables. La sélection génétique a renforcé les gains de productivité (+ 40 oeufs pour une année de production et réduction de l’indice de consommation de 15% en 20 ans !). L’article de C. Beaumont et al décrit cette évolution, la prise en compte croissante de nouveaux critères de qualité technologique, nutritionnelle ou sanitaire. Ces auteurs soulignent les apports des nouvelles technologies, marqueurs moléculaires et cartes génétiques sur les méthodes de sélection. Ils dressent un bilan actualisé des apports et du potentiel de cette évolution récente en sélection. Le séquençage génomique et le développement de la génomique fonctionnelle est aussi à l’origine d’une vraie révolution des connaissances sur les constituants de l’oeuf comme le démontre l’article de J. Gautron et al. Le nombre de protéines identifiées dans l’oeuf a été multiplié par plus de dix fois et devrait dans un avenir proche permettre la caractérisation fonctionnelle de nombreuses molécules. Il donne aussi de nouveaux moyens pour prospecter les mécanismes d’élaboration de ce produit. Un exemple de l’apport de ces nouvelles technologies est illustré par l’article de Y. Nys et al sur les propriétés et la formation de la coquille. Des progrès considérables sur la compréhension de l’élaboration de cette structure minérale sophistiquée ont été réalisés suite à l’identification des constituants organiques de la coquille puis de l’analyse de leur fonction potentielle élucidée grâce à la disponibilité des séquences des gènes et protéines associés. La mise en place de collaborations internationales associant de nombreuses disciplines, (microscopie électronique, biochimie, cristallographie, mécanique des matériaux) a démontré le rôle de ces protéines dans le processus de minéralisation et du contrôle de la texture de la coquille et de ses propriétés mécaniques. Cette progression des connaissances a permis de mieux comprendre l’origine de la dégradation de la solidité de la coquille observée chez les poules en fin d’année de production. La physiologie de la poule est responsable d’évolution importante de la qualité de l’oeuf. Aussi, l’article de A. Travel et al rappelle l’importance d’effets négatifs de l’âge de la poule contre lequel nous disposons de peu de moyens. Cet article résume également les principales données, souvent anciennes, concernant l’influence importante des programmes lumineux ou de la mue pour améliorer la qualité de l’oeuf. Enfin, il souligne l’importance de l’exposition des poules à de hautes températures ambiantes sur leur physiologie et la qualité de l’oeuf. Le troisième facteur indispensable à l’expression du potentiel génétique des poules, et déterminant de la qualité technologique et nutritionnelle de l’oeuf, est la nutrition de la poule. Elle représente plus de 60% du coût de production. L’article de I. Bouvarel et al fait le point sur l’influence de la concentration énergétique de l’aliment, de l’apport en protéines et acides aminés, acides gras et minéraux sur le poids de l’oeuf, la proportion de blanc et de jaune ou sa composition notamment pour obtenir des oeufs enrichis en nutriments d’intérêt en nutrition humaine. Cependant, la préoccupation principale des éleveurs depuis une dizaine d’année est la mise en place en 2012 de nouveaux systèmes de production d’oeufs pour assurer une meilleure prise en compte du bien-être animal. L’article de S. Mallet et al traite de l’impact des systèmes alternatifs sur la qualité hygiénique de l’oeuf. Ces auteurs concluent positivement sur l’introduction de ces nouveaux systèmes pour la qualité hygiénique de l’oeuf une fois que les difficultés associées aux méconnaissances d’un nouveau système de production seront résolues. La qualité sanitaire de l’oeuf est la préoccupation majeure des consommateurs et un accident sanitaire a des conséquences considérables sur la consommation d’oeufs. L’article de F. Baron et S. Jan résume d’une manière exhaustive l’ensemble des éléments déterminants de la qualité microbiologique de l’oeuf et des ovoproduits : mode de contamination, développement des bactéries dans les compartiments de l’oeuf, défenses chimiques du blanc et moyens pour contrôler la contamination des oeufs et des ovoproduits. Le consommateur ne souhaite pas, à juste titre, ingérer d’éventuels contaminants chimiques présents dans ses aliments. L’article de C. Jondreville et al analyse ce risque associé à la consommation des oeufs. Il est exceptionnel de détecter la présence de polluants organiques au seuil toléré par la législation. Les auteurs insistent notamment sur l’importance de contrôler la consommation par les animaux élevés en plein air de sols qui peuvent être une source de contaminants. Une caractéristique de l’évolution de la production d’oeufs est le développement des ovoproduits qui répondent parfaitement à l’usage et à la sécurité sanitaire exigée en restauration collective. L’article de M. Anton et al décrit le processus d’obtention et l’intérêt des fractions d’oeufs du fait de leurs propriétés technologiques (pouvoirs moussant, foisonnant, gélifiant ou émulsifiant). Les différents processus de séparation, de décontamination et de stabilisation sont analysés pour leur effet sur la qualité du produit final. Enfin le dernier article de ce numéro spécial de F. Nau et al se devait d’aborder la principale qualité de l’oeuf qui conditionne son usage : la qualité nutritionnelle de ce produit pour l’Homme. Cet article actualise l’information dans ce domaine et fait le point sur les atouts nutritionnels en tentant de corriger de fausses idées. L’oeuf présente un intérêt nutritionnel du fait de la diversité et l’équilibre de ces constituants pour l’Homme mais mériterait plus d’études pour mieux évaluer son potentiel réel. En conclusion, l’oeuf est la source de protéines animales ayant la meilleure valeur nutritionnelle, la moins chère, facile d’emploi et possédant de nombreuses propriétés techno-fonctionnelles valorisées en cuisine. Dans les pays développés, l’oeuf a souffert jusqu’à aujourd’hui d’une image entachée par plusieurs éléments négatifs aux yeux des consommateurs : sa richesse en cholestérol, le risque sanitaire associé à sa consommation sous forme crue ou son système de production en cage. L’évolution des connaissances sur le risque cardio-vasculaire, les progrès réalisés sur le contrôle sanitaire des Salmonelloses en Europe et la modification radicale des systèmes de production d’oeufs devraient modifier positivement son image. La consommation de protéines de l’oeuf a augmenté de plus de 25% en 20 ans (2,53 g/personne/j vs 4,3 g pour le lait en 2005) et poursuivra sa croissance rapide notamment dans les pays en développementoù sa consommation par habitant reste faible. Cette évolution considérable de la production de ce produit devrait être mieux intégrée dans les formations des écoles spécialisées en productions animales. L’oeuf restera dans l’avenir une des sources de protéines animales dominantes et l’acquisition de connaissances sur la fonction des nombreux constituants récemment mis à jour devait renforcer son intérêt pour la santé de l’Homme. Je ne voudrais pas terminer cette préface sans remercier au nom des auteurs, Jean-Marc Perez, le responsable de la revue INRA Productions Animales, d’avoir pris l'initiative de la publication de ce numéro spécial dédié à l'oeuf et d’avoir amélioré par plusieurs lectures attentives la qualité finale des textes. Je voudrais aussi adresser mes remerciements à sa collaboratrice Danièle Caste pour le soin apporté dans la finition de ce document. Enfin, je n'oublie pas le travail d'évaluation critique des projets d'article par les différents lecteursarbitres que je tiens à remercier ici collectivement. Auer M., Streff J., 1999. Histoires d’oeufs. Idées et Calendes, Neuchatel, Suisse, 261p.Nau F., Guérin-Dubiard C., Baron F., Thapon J.L., 2010. Science et technologie de l’oeuf et des ovoproduits, Editions Tec et Doc Lavoisier, Paris, France, vol 1, 361p., vol 2, 552p.

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Several zoonotic tick-borne diseases are emerging in Europe due to various factors, including changes of the cultural landscape, increasing human populations, variation of social habits and climate change. We have modelled the potential range changes for two thermophilic tick species (Hyalomma marginatum and Rhipicephalus annulatus) by use of MaxEnt® and 15 climatic predictors, taking into account the aptitude for future climatic change in Romania. Current models predict increased temperatures, both in the short term (up to 2050) and in the long term (up to 2070), together with possible changes also of the other climatic factors (e.g. precipitation), and may lead to higher zoonotic risks associated with an expansion of the range of the target species. Three different models were constructed (the present, 2050 and 2070) for four representative concentration pathways (RCPs) of greenhouse gas scenarios: RCP2.6, RCP4.5, RCP6, and RCP8.5. The most dramatic scenario (RCP8.5) produced the highest increase in the probable distribution range for both species. In concordance with similar continental-wide studies, both tick species displayed a shift of distribution towards previously cooler areas of Romania. In most scenarios, this would lead to wider ranges; from 9.7 to 43.1% for H. marginatum, and from 53.4 to 205.2% for R annulatus. Although the developed models demonstrate a good predictive power, the issue of species ecology should also be considered.

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Table olives (Olea europaea) are an important fermented product of the Mediterranean diet food pattern and Portugal is one of the biggest producers in Europe. Three different cultivars produced traditionally in Southern Portugal were studied, Maçanilha Algarvia, Cobrançosa and Galega, which were all processed through natural fermentations, although prepared differently. Maçanilha green were cracked, Cobrançosa turning color split, and Galega black prepared as a whole. At the end of the fermentation, the microbiological, physicochemical and nutritional characteristics were studied following standard methodologies. All the fruits showed a good pulp/stone ratio, confirming their aptitude to produce table olives, though their color and texture were statistically different. The three table olives showed suitable acidity and pH values, in addition to a high water content, followed by fat, low-sugar content and fairly low dietary fiber, resulting in a valuable energy food product. Nutritionally, the olives were not significantly different, however Galega had the highest total phenolic content. Statistical differences were observed among their fatty acid composition, with Galega and Maçanilha having the highest oleic and linoleic contents, respectively. The mesophilic microorganisms, the fungi and the LAB were 5.3, 4.7, 4.0 Log CFU/g, 5.9, 5.0, 4.4 Log CFU/g and 5.6, 3.7, 3.7 Log CFU/g for Maçanilha, Cobrançosa and Galega, respectively. No E. coli, staphylococci, Salmonella sp. and Listeria monocytogenes were detected in the samples. The table olives studied revealed an excellent microbial quality and are a good source of phenolics and total unsaturated fatty acids, namely linoleic and oleic acids.

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Résumé Cet article, accompagné d’illustrations, aborde l’approche de Byron à la sculpture. Malgré ce qu’il pouvait penser de son aptitude en arts visuels, je montrerai que Byron avait un engagement très informé à l’endroit de l’esthétique qui régissait la sculpture à son époque, surtout en ce qui a trait au débat entre le naturalisme et l’idéalisation. Ce débat est passé au premier plan en Angleterre à partir de 1807 surtout, lorsque le Lord Elgin amenait en Angleterre les marbres du Parthenon dans l’espoir de les vendre au gouvernement britannique. Au début de 1816, un rapport parlementaire sur l’achat éventuel des marbres fait une distinction entre le naturalisme des figures de la collection d’Elgin et l’Apollon du Belvédère, « la représentation la plus élevée et la plus sublime de la forme idéale et de la beauté que n’a jamais concrétisé la Sculpture1 ». Le buste de Bertel Thorvaldsen et la statue commémorative de Byron sont les oeuvres d’art les plus distinguées qui soient associées au portrait du poète, et ont été créées par un artiste bien en vue du milieu artistique en Europe. Cet article place la commande du buste par Hobhouse et l’engagement de Byron au processus dans le contexte du débat entre la forme naturaliste et sublime, débat dans lequel s’entremêlaient les préoccupations esthétiques des disciples du néoclassicisme, de Burke et du romantisme à l’égard du napoléonisme et des politiques de l’ère post-révolutionnaire. La discussion portera également sur les lettres écrites par Hobhouse à Thorvaldsen en 1829 (en français), jamais publiée dans aucune autre étude sur Byron, dans lesquelles on peut lire une description physique de Byron par Hobhouse.

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Ces dernières années, il y a eu des changements positifs dans l'étude et l'enseignement des langues étrangères en Ouzbékistan. En application du décret présidentiel n ° 1875 du 10 décembre 2012 sur les mesures visant à améliorer encore le système d'apprentissage des langues étrangères, un certain nombre de décisions gouvernementales et d'actes juridiques normatifs des ministères et départements ont été adoptés. En particulier, la Résolution n ° 124 du Conseil des ministres du 8 mai 2013 a approuvé les normes éducatives nationales du système de formation continue. La création de ce document était basée sur le CECR - Compétence européenne commune pour l'apprentissage des langues étrangères, largement utilisé en Europe. Cette norme définit des niveaux de A1 à S1 pour toutes les étapes du système de formation continue. Cela fait 8 ans, de nouvelles réformes ont eu lieu dans le système éducatif de l'Ouzbékistan, la loi sur l'éducation a été adoptée dans une nouvelle édition, une norme pour les enfants âgés de 6 à 7 ans a été introduite dans le système d'éducation préscolaire, l'enseignement secondaire général a été fixé à 11 ans, l'enseignement secondaire spécial de 3 ans est réduit à 2 ans, des écoles professionnelles de 2 ans ont été créées. Des formations à temps partiel, du soir et à distance ont été introduites dans le système d'enseignement supérieur. En même temps, il existe un certain nombre de difficultés à maîtriser les normes éducatives de l'État, les programmes, les manuels et les manuels basés sur eux par les étudiants, la répétition des sujets, la continuité entre les étapes de l'éducation, le manque de continuité entre les sujets et les compétences vocales. Le fait que les manuels en cours ne fonent pas une suite logique les uns aux autres et qu’ils sont devenus trop complexes dans une classe ou simplifiés dans une autre, pose également des problèmes chez les apprenants et les enseignants des langues. Parmi eux on note que le manuel d’anglais de 4e année «Kids’ English 4» du point de contenu et de niveau de difficulté ne fait pas une suite logique au manuel actuel d’anglais de 5e année «New Fly High 5». Mêmes si les manuels des niveaux 10 et 11 sont adaptés aux besoins d’aujourd’hui, les connaissances et les compétences exigées pour ces niveaux ne sont pas acquises dans les années de 6 à 9. Du point de vue de niveaux, on observe des difficultés chez les élèves dans la réalisation des exigences de niveau A1 de connaissances, d’acquis et de pratiques desitinés pour les primaires. Dans cet article nous essayons d’analyser et proposer les voies de résolution des problèmes posés ci-dessus.

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Lincolnshire, England. The crowd cheer when the ball breaks loose. From one end of the field to the other, the players chase, their snouts hovering just above the grass. It’s not a case of four legs being better, rather a novel way to attract customers to the Woodside Wildlife and Falconry Park. During the matches, volunteers are drawn from the crowd to hold goal posts at either end of the run the pigs usually race on. With five pigs playing, two teams of two and a referee, and a ball designed to leak feed as it rolls (Stevenson) the ten-minute competition is fraught with tension. While the pig’s contributions to “the beautiful game” (Fish and Pele 7) have not always been so obvious, it could be argued that specific parts of the animal have had a significant impact on a sport which, despite calls to fall into line with much of the rest of the world, people in Australia (and the US) are more likely to call soccer. The Football Precursors to the modern football were constructed around an inflated pig’s bladder (Price, Jones and Harland). Animal hide, usually from a cow, was stitched around the bladder to offer some degree of stability, but the bladder’s irregular and uneven form made for unpredictable movement in flight. This added some excitement and affected how ball games such as the often violent, calico matches in Florence, were played. In the early 1970s, the world’s oldest ball was discovered during a renovation in Stirling Castle, Scotland. The ball has a pig’s bladder inside its hand-stitched, deer-hide outer. It was found in the ceiling above the bed in, what was then Mary Queens of Scots’ bedroom. It has since been dated to the 1540s (McGinnes). Neglected and left in storage until the late 1990s, the ball found pride of place in an exhibition in the Smiths Art Gallery and Museum, Stirling, and only gained worldwide recognition (as we will see later) in 2006. Despite confirmed interest in a number of sports, there is no evidence to support Mary’s involvement with football (Springer). The deer-hide ball may have been placed to gather and trap untoward spirits attempting to enter the monarch’s sleep, or simply left by accident and forgotten (McGinnes in Springer). Mary, though, was not so fortunate. She was confined and forgotten, but only until she was put to death in 1587. The Executioner having gripped her hair to hold his prize aloft, realised too late it was a wig and Mary’s head bounced and rolled across the floor. Football Development The pig’s bladder was the central component in the construction of the football for the next three hundred years. However, the issue of the ball’s movement (the bounce and roll), the bladder’s propensity to burst when kicked, and an unfortunate wife’s end, conspired to push the pig from the ball before the close of the nineteenth-century. The game of football began to take its shape in 1848, when JC Thring and a few colleagues devised the Cambridge Rules. This compromised set of guidelines was developed from those used across the different ‘ball’ games played at England’s elite schools. The game involved far more kicking, and the pig’s bladders, prone to bursting under such conditions, soon became impractical. Charles Goodyear’s invention of vulcanisation in 1836 and the death of prestigious rugby and football maker Richard Lindon’s wife in 1870 facilitated the replacement of the animal bladder with a rubber-based alternative. Tragically, Mr Lindon’s chief inflator died as a result of blowing up too many infected pig’s bladders (Hawkesley). Before it closed earlier this year (Rhoads), the US Soccer Hall of Fame displayed a rubber football made in 1863 under the misleading claim that it was the oldest known football. By the late 1800s, professional, predominantly Scottish play-makers had transformed the game from its ‘kick-and-run’ origins into what is now called ‘the passing game’ (Sanders). Football, thanks in no small part to Scottish factory workers (Kay), quickly spread through Europe and consequently the rest of the world. National competitions emerged through the growing need for organisation, and the pig-free mass production of balls began in earnest. Mitre and Thomlinson’s of Glasgow were two of the first to make and sell their much rounder balls. With heavy leather panels sewn together and wrapped around a thick rubber inner, these balls were more likely to retain shape—a claim the pig’s bladder equivalent could not legitimately make. The rubber-bladdered balls bounced more too. Their weight and external stitching made them more painful to header, but also more than useful for kicking and particularly for passing from one player to another. The ball’s relatively quick advancement can thereafter be linked to the growth and success of the World Cup Finals tournament. Before the pig re-enters the fray, it is important to glance, however briefly, at the ball’s development through the international game. World Cup Footballs Pre-tournament favourites, Spain, won the 2010 FIFA World Cup, playing with “an undistorted, perfectly spherical ball” (Ghosh par. 7), the “roundest” ever designed (FIFA par.1). Their victory may speak to notions of predictability in the ball, the tournament and the most lucrative levels of professional endeavour, but this notion is not a new one to football. The ball’s construction has had an influence on the way the game has been played since the days of Mary Queen of Scots. The first World Cup Final, in 1930, featured two heavy, leather, twelve-panelled footballs—not dissimilar to those being produced in Glasgow decades earlier. The players and officials of Uruguay and Argentina could not agree, so they played the first half with an Argentine ball. At half-time, Argentina led by two goals to one. In the second half, Uruguay scored three unanswered goals with their own ball (FIFA). The next Final was won by Italy, the home nation in 1934. Orsi, Italy’s adopted star, poked a wildly swerving shot beyond the outstretched Czech keeper. The next day Orsi, obligated to prove his goal was not luck or miracle, attempted to repeat the feat before an audience of gathered photographers. He failed. More than twenty times. The spin on his shot may have been due to the, not uncommon occurrence, of the ball being knocked out of shape during the match (FIFA). By 1954, the Federation Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) had sought to regulate ball size and structure and, in 1958, rigorously tested balls equal to the demands of world-class competition. The 1950s also marked the innovation of the swerving free kick. The technique, developed in the warm, dry conditions of the South American game, would not become popular elsewhere until ball technology improved. The heavy hand-stitched orb, like its early counterparts, was prone to water absorption, which increased the weight and made it less responsive, particularly for those playing during European winters (Bray). The 1970 World Cup in Mexico saw football progress even further. Pele, arguably the game’s greatest player, found his feet, and his national side, Brazil, cemented their international football prominence when they won the Jules Rimet trophy for the third time. Their innovative and stylish use of the football in curling passes and bending free kicks quickly spread to other teams. The same World Cup saw Adidas, the German sports goods manufacturer, enter into a long-standing partnership with FIFA. Following the competition, they sold an estimated six hundred thousand match and replica tournament footballs (FIFA). The ball, the ‘Telstar’, with its black and white hexagonal panels, became an icon of the modern era as the game itself gained something close to global popularity for the first time in its history. Over the next forty years, the ball became incrementally technologically superior. It became synthetic, water-resistant, and consistent in terms of rebound and flight characteristics. It was constructed to be stronger and more resistant to shape distortion. Internal layers of polyutherane and Syntactic Foam made it lighter, capable of greater velocity and more responsive to touch (FIFA). Adidas spent three years researching and developing the 2006 World Cup ball, the ‘Teamgeist’. Fourteen panels made it rounder and more precise, offering a lower bounce, and making it more difficult to curl due to its accuracy in flight. At the same time, audiences began to see less of players like Roberto Carlos (Brazil and Real Madrid CF) and David Beckham (Manchester United, LA Galaxy and England), who regularly scored goals that challenged the laws of physics (Gill). While Adidas announced the 2006 release of the world’s best performing ball in Berlin, the world’s oldest was on its way to the Museum fur Volkerkunde in Hamburg for the duration of the 2006 FIFA World Cup. The Mary Queen of Scot’s ball took centre spot in an exhibit which also featured a pie stand—though not pork pies—from Hibernian Football Club (Strang). In terms of publicity and raising awareness of the Scots’ role in the game’s historical development, the installation was an unrivalled success for the Scottish Football Museum (McBrearty). It did, however, very little for the pig. Heads, not Tails In 2002, the pig or rather the head of a pig, bounced and rolled back into football’s limelight. For five years Luis Figo, Portugal’s most capped international player, led FC Barcelona to domestic and European success. In 2000, he had been lured to bitter rivals Real Madrid CF for a then-world record fee of around £37 million (Nash). On his return to the Catalan Camp Nou, wearing the shimmering white of Real Madrid CF, he was showered with beer cans, lighters, bottles and golf balls. Among the objects thrown, a suckling pig’s head chimed a psychological nod to the spear with two sharp ends in William Golding’s story. Play was suspended for sixteen minutes while police tried to quell the commotion (Lowe). In 2009, another pig’s head made its way into football for different reasons. Tightly held in the greasy fingers of an Orlando Pirates fan, it was described as a symbol of the ‘roasting’ his team would give the Kaiser Chiefs. After the game, he and his friend planned to eat their mascot and celebrate victory over their team’s most reviled competitors (Edwards). The game ended in a nil-all draw. Prior to the 2010 FIFA World Cup, it was not uncommon for a range of objects that European fans might find bizarre, to be allowed into South African league matches. They signified luck and good feeling, and in some cases even witchcraft. Cabbages, known locally for their medicinal qualities, were very common—common enough for both sets of fans to take them (Edwards). FIFA, an organisation which has more members than the United Nations (McGregor), impressed their values on the South African Government. The VuVuZela was fine to take to games; indeed, it became a cultural artefact. Very little else would be accepted. Armed with their economy-altering engine, the world’s most watched tournament has a tendency to get what it wants. And the crowd respond accordingly. Incidentally, the ‘Jabulani’—the ball developed for the 2010 tournament—is the most consistent football ever designed. In an exhaustive series of tests, engineers at Loughborough University, England, learned, among other things, the added golf ball-like grooves on its surface made the ball’s flight more symmetrical and more controlled. The Jabulani is more reliable or, if you will, more predictable than any predecessor (Ghosh). Spanish Ham Through support from their Governing body, the Real Federación Española de Fútbol, Spain have built a national side with experience, and an unparalleled number of talented individuals, around the core of the current FC Barcelona club side. Their strength as a team is founded on the bond between those playing on a weekly basis at the Catalan club. Their style has allowed them to create and maintain momentum on the international stage. Victorious in the 2008 UEFA European Football Championship and undefeated in their run through the qualifying stages into the World Cup Finals in South Africa, they were tournament favourites before a Jabulani was rolled into touch. As Tim Parks noted in his New York Review of Books article, “The Shame of the World Cup”, “the Spanish were superior to an extent one rarely sees in the final stages of a major competition” (2010 par. 15). They have a “remarkable ability to control, hold and hide the ball under intense pressure,” and play “a passing game of great subtlety [ ... to] patiently wear down an opposing team” (Parks par. 16). Spain won the tournament having scored fewer goals per game than any previous winner. Perhaps, as Parks suggests, they scored as often as they needed to. They found the net eight times in their seven matches (Fletcher). This was the first time that Spain had won the prestigious trophy, and the first time a European country has won the tournament on a different continent. In this, they have broken the stranglehold of superpowers like Germany, Italy and Brazil. The Spanish brand of passing football is the new benchmark. Beautiful to watch, it has grace, flow and high entertainment value, but seems to lack something of an organic nature: that is, it lacks the chance for things to go wrong. An element of robotic aptitude has crept in. This occurred on a lesser scale across the 2010 FIFA World Cup finals, but it is possible to argue that teams and players, regardless of nation, have become interchangeable, that the world’s best players and the way they play have become identikits, formulas to be followed and manipulated by master tacticians. There was a great deal of concern in early rounds about boring matches. The world’s media focused on an octopus that successfully chose the winner of each of Germany’s matches and the winner of the final. Perhaps, in shaping the ‘most’ perfect ball and the ‘most’ perfect football, the World Cup has become the most predictable of tournaments. In Conclusion The origins of the ball, Orsi’s unrepeatable winner and the swerving free kick, popular for the best part of fifty years, are worth remembering. These issues ask the powers of football to turn back before the game is smothered by the hunt for faultlessness. The unpredictability of the ball goes hand in hand with the game. Its flaws underline its beauty. Football has so much more transformative power than lucrative evolutionary accretion. While the pig’s head was an ugly statement in European football, it is a symbol of hope in its South African counterpart. Either way its removal is a reminder of Golding’s message and the threat of hom*ogeneity; a nod to the absence of the irregular in the modern era. Removing the curve from the free kick echoes the removal of the pig’s bladder from the ball. The fun is in the imperfection. Where will the game go when it becomes indefectible? Where does it go from here? Can there really be any validity in claiming yet another ‘roundest ball ever’? Chip technology will be introduced. The ball’s future replacements will be tracked by satellite and digitally-fed, reassured referees will determine the outcome of difficult decisions. Victory for the passing game underlines the notion that despite technological advancement, the game has changed very little since those pioneering Scotsmen took to the field. Shouldn’t we leave things the way they were? Like the pigs at Woodside Wildlife and Falconry Park, the level of improvement seems determined by the level of incentive. The pigs, at least, are playing to feed themselves. Acknowledgments The author thanks editors, Donna Lee Brien and Adele Wessell, and the two blind peer reviewers, for their constructive feedback and reflective insights. The remaining mistakes are his own. References “Adidas unveils Golden Ball for 2006 FIFA World Cup Final” Adidas. 18 Apr. 2006. 23 Aug. 2010 . Bray, Ken. “The science behind the swerve.” BBC News 5 Jun. 2006. 19 Aug. 2010 http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/5048238.stm>. Edwards, Piers. “Cabbage and Roasted Pig.” BBC Fast Track Soweto, BBC News 3 Nov. 2009. 23 Aug. 2010 . FIFA. “The Footballs during the FIFA World Cup™” FIFA.com. 18 Aug. 2010 .20 Fish, Robert L., and Pele. My Life and the Beautiful Game. New York: Bantam Dell, 1977. Fletcher, Paul. “Match report on 2010 FIFA World Cup Final between Spain and Netherlands”. BBC News—Sports 12 Jul. 2010 . Ghosh, Pallab. “Engineers defend World Cup football amid criticism.” BBC News—Science and Environment 4 Jun. 2010. 19 Aug. 2010 . Gill, Victoria. “Roberto Carlos wonder goal ‘no fluke’, say physicists.” BBC News—Science and Environment 2 Sep. 2010 . Hawkesley, Simon. Richard Lindon 22 Aug. 2010 . “History of Football” FIFA.com. Classic Football. 20 Aug. 2010 . Kay, Billy. The Scottish World: A Journey into the Scottish Diaspora. London: Mainstream, 2008. Lowe, Sid. “Peace for Figo? And pigs might fly ...” The Guardian (London). 25 Nov. 2002. 20 Aug. 2010 . “Mary, Queen of Scots (r.1542-1567)”. The Official Website of the British Monarchy. 20 Jul. 2010 . McBrearty, Richard. Personal Interview. 12 Jul. 2010. McGinnes, Michael. Smiths Art Gallery and Museum. Visited 14 Jul. 2010 . McGregor, Karen. “FIFA—Building a transnational football community. University World News 13 Jun. 2010. 19 Jul. 2010 . Nash, Elizabeth. “Figo defects to Real Madrid for record £36.2m." The Independent (London) 25 Jul. 2000. 20 Aug. 2010 . “Oldest football to take cup trip” 25 Apr. 2006. 20 Jul. 2010 . Parks, Tim. “The Shame of the World Cup”. New York Review of Books 19 Aug. 2010. 23 Aug. 2010 < http://nybooks.com/articles/archives/2010/aug/19/shame-world-cup/>. “Pig football scores a hit at centre.” BBC News 4 Aug. 2009. August 20 2010 . Price, D. S., Jones, R. Harland, A. R. “Computational modelling of manually stitched footballs.” Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part L. Journal of Materials: Design & Applications 220 (2006): 259-268. Rhoads, Christopher. “Forget That Trip You Had Planned to the National Soccer Hall of Fame.” Wall Street Journal 26 Jun. 2010. 22 Sep. 2010 . “Roberto Carlos Impossible Goal”. News coverage posted on You Tube, 27 May 2007. 23 Aug. 2010 . Sanders, Richard. Beastly Fury. London: Bantam, 2009. “Soccer to become football in Australia”. Sydney Morning Herald 17 Dec. 2004. 21 Aug. 2010 . Springer, Will. “World’s oldest football – fit for a Queen.” The Scotsman. 13 Mar. 2006. 19 Aug. 2010 < http://heritage.scotsman.com/willspringer/Worlds-oldest-football-fit.2758469.jp >. Stevenson, R. “Pigs Play Football at Wildlife Centre”. Lincolnshire Echo 3 Aug. 2009. 20 Aug. 2010 . Strang, Kenny. Personal Interview. 12 Jul. 2010. “The Execution of Mary Queen of Scots February 8, 1857”. Tudor History 21 Jul. 2010 http://tudorhistory.org/primary/exmary.html>. “The History of the FA.” The FA. 20 Jul. 2010 “World’s Oldest Ball”. World Cup South Africa 2010 Blog. 22 Jul. 2010 . “World’s Oldest Soccer Ball by Charles Goodyear”. 18 Mar. 2010. 20 Jul. 2010 .

Abstract:

To Remember‘The central problem of today’s global interactions is the tension between cultural hom*ogenisation and cultural heterogenisation.’ (Appadurai 49)While this statement has been made more than twenty years, it remains more relevant than ever. The current age is one of widespread global migrations and dis-placement. The phenomenon of globalisation is the first and major factor for this newly created shift of ground, of transmigration as defined by its etymological meaning. However, a growing number of migrations also result from social or political oppression and war as we witness the current flow of refugees from Africa or Syria to Europe and with growing momentum, from climate change, the people of Tokelau or Nauru migrating as a result of the rise of sea levels in their South Pacific homeland. Such global migrations lead to an intense co-habitation of various cultures, ethnicities and religions in host societies. In late twentieth century Giddens explains this complexity and discusses how globalisation requires a re-organisation of time and space in social and cultural life of both the host and the migrant (Giddens 14). In the host country, Appadurai terms the physical consequences of this phenomenon as the new ‘ethnoscape’ (Appadurai 51). This fact is particularly relevant to New Zealand, a country that is currently seeing an unprecedented level of immigration from various and numerous ethnic groups which is evidently influencing the makeup of its entire population.For the migrant, according to Xavier & Rosaldo, social life following migration re-establishes itself on two fronts: the first is the pre-modern manner of being present through participation in localised activities at specific locales; the second is about fostering relationships with absent others through media and across the world. These “settings for distanced relations – for relations at a distance, [are] stretched out across time and space” (Xavier & Rosaldo 8). Throughout the world, people in dis-placement reorganise their societies in both of these fronts.Dis-placement is ‘a potentially traumatic event that is collectively experienced" (Norris 128). Disaster and trauma related dis-placement as stressors happen to entire communities, not just individuals, families and neighbourhoods. Members are exposed together and it has been argued, must, therefore, recover together, (Norris 145). On one hand, in the situation of collective trauma some attachment to a new space ‘increases the likelihood that a community as a whole has the will to rebuild’ (Norris 145). On the other, it is suggested that for the individual, place attachment makes the necessary relocation much harder. It is in re-location however that the will to recreate or reproduce will emerge. Indeed part of the recovery in the case of relocation can be the reconstruction of place. The places of past experiences and rituals for meaning are commonly recreated or reproduced as new places of attachment abroad. The will and ability to reimagine and re-materialise (Gupta & Ferguson 70) the lost heritage is motivational and defines resilience.This is something a great deal of communities such as the displaced Coptic community in New Zealand look to achieve, re-constructing a familiar space, where rituals and meaning can reaffirm their ideal existence, the only form of existence they have ever known before relocation. In this instance it is the reconstruction and reinterpretation of a traditional Coptic Orthodox church. Resilience can be examined as a ‘sense of community’, a concept that binds people with shared values. Concern for community and respect for others can transcend the physical and can bind disparate individuals in ways that otherwise might require more formal organisations. It has been noted that trauma due to displacement and relocation can enhance a sense of closeness and stronger belonging (Norris 139). Indeed citizen participation is fundamental to community resilience (Norris 139) and it entails the engagement of community members in formal organisations, including religious congregations (Perkins et al. 2002; Norris 139) and collective gatherings around cultural rituals. However, the displacement also strengthens the emotional ties at the individual level to the homeland, to kinfolk and to the more abstract cultural mores and ideas.Commitment and AttachmentRecalling places of collective events and rituals such as assembly halls and spaces of worship is crucially important for dis-placed communities. The attachment to place exposes the challenges and opportunities for recollecting the spirit of space in the situation of a people abroad. This in turn, raises the question of memory and its representation in re-creating the architectural qualities of the cultural space from its original context. This article offers the employ of visual representation (drawings) as a strategy of recall. To explore these ideas further, the situation of the Egyptian community of Coptic Orthodox faith, relocated, displaced and living ‘abroad’ in New Zealand is being considered. This small community that emigrated to New Zealand firstly in the 1950s then in the 1970s represents in many ways the various ethnicities and religious beliefs found in New Zealand.Rituals and congregations are held in collective spaces and while the attachment to the collective is essential, the question to be addressed here relates to the role of the physical community space in forming or maintaining the attachment to community (Pretty, Chipuer, and Bramston 78). Groups or societies use systems of shared meanings to interpret and make sense of the world. However, shared meanings have traditionally been tied to the idea of a fixed territory (Manzo & Devine-Wright 335, Xavier & Rosaldo 10). Manzo and Perkins further suggest that place attachments provide stability and are integral to self-definitions (335-350). Image by Vioula Said.Stability and self-definition and ultimately identity are in turn, placed in jeopardy with the process of displacement and de-territorilisation. Shared meanings are shifted and potentially lost when the resultant instability occurs. Norris finds that in the strongest cases, individuals, neighbourhoods and communities lose their sense of identity and self-definition when displaced due to the destruction of natural and built environments (Norris 139). This comment is particularly relevant to people who are emigrating to New Zealand as refugees from climate change such as Pasifika or from wars and oppression such as the Coptic community. This loss strengthens the requirement for something greater than just a common space of congregation, something that transcends the physical. The sense of belonging and identity in the complexity of potential cultural heterogenisation is at issue. The role of architecture in dis-placement is thereby brought into question seeking answers to how it should facilitate a space of attachment for resilience, for identity and for belonging.A unity of place and people has long been assumed in the anthropological concept of culture (Gupta & Ferguson: 75). According to Xavier & Rosaldo the historical tendency has been to connect the realm of constructing meaning to the particularities of place (Xavier & Rosaldo 10). Thereby, cultural meanings are intrinsically linked to place. Therefore, place attachment to the reproduced or re-interpreted place is crucially important for dis-placed societies in re-establishing social and cultural content. Architectural spaces are the obvious holders of cultural, social and spiritual content for such enterprises. Hillier suggests that all "architecture is, in essence, the application of speculative and abstract thought to the non-discursive aspects of building, and because it is so, it is also its application to the social and cultural contents of buildings” (Hillier 3).To Re-ImagineAn attempt to reflect the history, stories and the cultural mores of the Coptic community in exile by privileging material and design authenticity, merits attention. An important aspect of the Coptic faith lies within its adherence to symbolism and rituals and strict adherence to the traditional forms and configurations of space may reflect some authenticity of the customary qualities of the space (Said 109). However, the original space is itself in flux, changing with time and environmental conditions; as are the memories of those travelling abroad as they come from different moments in time. Experience has shown that a communities’ will to re-establish social and cultural content through their traditional architecture on new sites has not always resurrected their history and reignited their original spirit. The impact of the new context’s reality on the reproduction or re interpretation of place may not fully enable its entire community’s attachment to it. There are significant implications from the displacement of site that lead to a disassociation from the former architectural language. Consequently there is a cultural imperative for an approach that entails the engagement of community in the re-making of a cultural space before responding to the demands of site. Cultures come into conflict when the new ways of knowing and acting are at odds with the old. Recreating a place without acknowledging these tensions may lead to non-attachment. Facing cultural paradox and searching for authenticity explains in part, the value of intangible heritage and the need to privilege it over its tangible counterpart.Intangible HeritageThe intangible qualities of place and the memory of them are anchors for a dis-placed community to reimagine and re-materialise its lost heritage and to recreate a new place for attachment. This brings about the notion of the authenticity of cultural heritage, it exposes the uncertain value of reconstruction and it exhibits the struggles associated with de-territorilisation in such a process.In dealing with cultural heritage and contemporary conservation practice with today’s wider understanding of the interdisciplinary field of heritage studies, several authors discuss the relevance and applicability of the 1964 Venice Charter on architectural heritage. Glendinning argues that today’s heritage practices exploit the physical remains of the past for useful modern and aesthetic purposes as they are less concerned with the history they once served (Glendinning 3). For example, the act of modernising and restoring a historic museum is counterbalanced by its ancient exhibits thereby highlighting modern progress. Others support this position by arguing that relationships, associations and meanings that contribute to the value of a site should not be dismissed in favour of physical remains (Hill 21). Smith notes that the less tangible approaches struggle to gain leverage within conventional practice, and therefore lack authenticity. This can be evidenced in so many of our reconstructed heritage sites. This leads to the importance of the intangible when dealing with architectural heritage. Image by Vioula Said.In practice, a number of different methods and approaches are employed to safeguard intangible cultural heritage. In order to provide a common platform for considering intangible heritage, UNESCO developed the 2003 ‘Convention for the Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage’. Rather than simply addressing physical heritage, this convention helped to define the intangible and served to promote its recognition. Intangible cultural heritage is defined as expressions, representations, practices, skills and knowledge that an individual a community or group recognise as their cultural heritage.Safeguarding intangible heritage requires a form of translation, for example, from the oral form into a material form, e.g. archives, inventories, museums and audio or film records. This ‘freezing’ of intangible heritage requires thoughtfulness and care in the choosing of the appropriate methods and materials. At the same time, the ephemeral aspects of intangible heritage make it vulnerable to being absorbed by the typecast cultural models predominant at any particular time. This less tangible characteristic of history and the pivotal role it plays in conveying a dialogue between the past and the present demands alternative methods. At a time when the identity of dis-placed people is in danger of being diminished by dominant host societies, the safeguarding of intangible cultural heritage is critically important in re-establishing social and cultural content.Recent news has shown the destruction of many Coptic churches in Egypt, through fire at increasing rates since 2011 or by bombings such as the ones witnessed in April 2017. For this particular problem of the Coptic Community, the authors propose that visual representation of spiritual spaces may aid in recollecting and re-establishing such heritage. The illustrations in this article present the personal journey of an artist of Egyptian Copt descent drawing from her memories of a place and time within the sphere of religious rituals. As Treib suggests, “Our recollections are situational and spatialised memories; they are memories attached to places and events” (Treib 22). The intertwining of real and imagined memory navigates to define the spirit of place of a lost time and community.The act of remembering is a societal ritual and in and of itself is part of the globalised world we live in today. The memories lodged in physical places range from incidents of personal biography to the highly refined and extensively interpreted segments of cultural lore (Treib 63). The act of remembering allows for our sense of identity and reflective cultural distinctiveness as well as shaping our present lives from that of our past. To remember is to celebrate or to commemorate the past (Treib 25).Memory has the aptitude to generate resilient links between self and environment, self and culture, as well as self and collective. “Our access to the past is no longer mediated by the account of a witness or a narrator, or by the eye of a photographer. We will not respond to a re-presentation of the historical event, but to a presentation or performance of it” (van Alphen 11). This statement aligns with Smith’s critical analysis of heritage and identity, not as a set of guidelines but as a performance experienced through the imagination, “experienced within a layering of performative qualities that embody remembrance and commemoration and aim to construct a sense of place and understanding within the present”(van Alphen 11). Heritage is hereby investigated as a re-constructed experience; attempting to identify a palette of memory-informed qualities that can be applied to the re-establishing of the heritage lost. Here memory will be defined as Aristotle’s Anamnesis, to identify the capacity to stimulate a range of physical and sensory experiences in the retrieval of heritage that may otherwise be forgotten (Cubitt 75; Huyssen 80). In architectural terms, Anamnesis, refers to the process of retrieval associated with intangible heritage, as a performance aimed at the recovery of memory, experienced through the imagination (Said 143). Unfortunately, when constructing an experience aimed at the recovery of memory, the conditions of a particular moment do not, once passed, move into a state of retirement from which they can be retrieved at a later date. Likewise, the conditions and occurrences of one moment can never be precisely recaptured, Treib describes memory as an interventionist:it magnifies, diminishes, adjusts, darkens, or illuminates places that are no longer extant, transforming the past anew every time it is called to mind, shorn or undesirable reminiscence embellished by wishful thinking, coloured by present concerns. (Treib 188)To remember them, Cubitt argues, we must reconstruct them; “not in the sense of reassembling something that has been taken to pieces and carefully stored, but in the sense of imaginatively configuring something that can no longer have the character of actuality” (Cubitt 77). Image by Vioula Said.Traditionally, history and past events have been put in writing to preserve their memory within the present. However, as argued by Treib, this mode of representation is inherently linear and static; contributing to a flattening of history. Similarly, Nelson states; “I consider how a visual mode of representation – as opposed to textual or oral – helps to shape memory” (Nelson 37). The unflattening of past events can occur by actively engaging with culture and tradition through the mechanism of reconstruction and representation of the intangible heritage (Said 145). As memory becomes crucial in affirming collective identity, place also becomes crucial in anchoring such experience. Interactive exhibition facilitates this act using imagery, interpretation and physical engagement while architectural place gives distinctiveness to cultural products and practices. Architectural space is always intrinsically bound with cultural practice. Appadurai says that where a groups’ past increasingly becomes part of museums, exhibits and collection, its culture becomes less a realm of reproducible practices and more an arena of choices and cultural reproduction (59). When place is shifted (de-territorilisation in migration) the loss of territorial roots brings “an erosion of the cultural distinctiveness of places, a de-territorilisation of identity” (Gupta & Ferguson 68). According to Gupta & Ferguson, “remembered places have …. often served as symbolic anchors of community for dispersed people” (Gupta & Ferguson 69).To Re-MakeIn the context of de-territorialisation the intangible qualities of the original space offer an avenue for the creation and experience of a new space in the spirit of its source. Simply reproducing a traditional building layout in the new territory or recollecting artefacts does not suffice in recalling the essence of place, nor does descriptive writing no matter how compelling. Issues of authenticity and identity underpin both of these strategies. Accepting the historical tendency to reconnect the realm of constructing meaning to the particularities of place requires an investigation on those ‘particularities of place’. Intangible heritage can bridge the problems of being out of one’s country, overseas, or ‘abroad’. While architecture can be as Hillier suggests, “in essence, the application of speculative and abstract thought to the non-discursive aspects of building” (Hillier 3). Architecture should not be reproduced but rather re-constructed as a holder or facilitator of recollection and collective performance. It is within the performance of intangible heritage in the ‘new’ architecture that a sense of belonging, identity and reconnection with home can be experienced abroad. Its visual representation takes centre stage in the process. The situation of the Egyptian community of Coptic faith in New Zealand is here looked at as an illustration. The intangibility of architectural heritage is created through one of the author’s graphic work here presented. Image by Vioula Said.The concept of drawing as an anchor for memory and drawing as a method to inhabit space is exposed and this presents a situation where drawing has an experiential nature in itself.It has been argued that a drawing is simply an image that compresses an entire experience of temporality. Pallasmaa suggests that “every drawing is an excavation into the past and memory of its creator” (Pallasmaa 91). The drawing is considered as a process of both observation and expression, of receiving and giving. The imagined or the remembered space turns real and becomes part of the experiential reality of the viewer and of the image maker. The drawing as a visual representation of the remembered experience within the embrace of an interior space is drawn from the image maker’s personal experience. It is the expression of their own recollection and not necessarily the precise realityor qualities perceived or remembered by others. This does not suggest that such drawing has a limited value. This article promotes the idea that such visual representation has potentially a shared transformative role. The development of drawings in this realm of intangible heritage exposes the fact that the act of drawing memory may provide an intimate relationship between architecture, past events within the space, the beholder of the memory and eventually the viewer of the drawing. The drawings can be considered a reminder of moments past, and an alternative method to the physical reproduction or preservation of the built form. It is a way to recollect, express and give new value to the understanding of intangible heritage, and constructs meaning.From the development of a personal spatial and intuitive recall to produce visual expressions of a remembered space and time, the image author optimistically seeks others to deeply engage with these images of layered memories. They invite the viewer to re-create their own memory by engaging with the author’s own perception. Simply put, drawings of a personal memory are offered as a convincing representation of intangible heritage and as an authentic expression of the character or essence of place to its audience. This is offered as a method of reconstructing what is re-membered, as a manifestation of symbolic anchor and as a first step towards attachment to place. The relevance of which may be pertinent for people in exile in a foreign land.ReferencesAppadurai, A. “Sovereignty without Territoriality: Notes for a Postnational Geography.” The Geography of Identity. Ed. Patricia Yaeger. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan Press, 1997. 40–58. Brown, R.H., and B. Brown. “The Making of Memory: The Politics of Archives, Libraries and Museum in the Construction of National Consciousness.” History of Human Sciences 11.4 (1993): 17–32.Clifford, James. Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century. 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